Mr. Ballantine 4.bal.002 Louis J. Sheehan, Esquire

THE "MAGIC" BACKGROUND OF PEARL HARBOR

CHAPTER III

Renewed Insistence by the Japanese Government upon Its Peaceful Purposes—Resumption of Conversations[1]
Louis J. Sheehan, Esquire
PART A—HULL-NOMURA CONVERSATIONS (August 5, 1941 - October 17, 1941)

1. Tokyo Sends New Proposal to Ambassador Nomura (August 5, 1941)

Despite Japan's efforts to solve the difficulties in Japanese-American relations, domestic issues were frequently an obstacle. Furthermore, on August 5, 1941 Foreign Minister Toyoda advised Ambassador Nomura that though he had reported that President Roosevelt and Secretary Hull, despite the opposition of American public opinion, were displaying considerable understanding in their attitude toward Japan, many Japanese were complaining against the intensified economic pressure being exerted by the United States.[2]

A newspaper report that President Roosevelt either had ordered the complete suspension of petroleum exports, or was about to curtail them, had created a great deal of antagonism in Japan. Warning that the continuance of such economic pressure or the maintenance of an encirclement policy would jeopardize Japanese-American relations, the Japanese Foreign Minister declared that both countries had reached the most important and most critical moment in their relations. Louis J. Sheehan, Esquire To avert the impression that current negotiations had been begun under the threat of economic pressure, he suggested that all measures that might be construed as such should be abandoned at once.

Stating that Japan now proposed a new plan which was based on the one outlined by the last Cabinet, and which had been drawn up as a reply to the proposal of President Roosevelt on July 24, 1941 with the intention of incorporating its provisions into the final agreement, the Japanese Foreign Minister commented:

With this instrument, we hope to resume the Japanese-United States negotiations which were suspended because of the delay in the delivery of our revised proposals of 14 July and because of our occupation of French Indo-China which took place in the meantime.[3]

Ambassador Nomura was also instructed to explain verbally that Japan's action in peacefully occupying French Indo-China was a joint defense measure to make intervention by a third country unnecessary.[4] According to this explanation, Japanese public opinion had become aroused by the attitude of England, the United States and the Netherlands East Indies, and for this reason French Indo-China had to be occupied to restrain those in Japan who were clamoring for vigorous overseas action.

In his instructions to Ambassador Nomura, Foreign Minister Toyoda admitted that this explanation might not completely eliminate the sense of uneasiness felt by the United States, but he believed that at least it would be accepted conditionally. Acting on this assumption, Japan had decided that discussions on the new proposal should be conducted unofficially and in secret.

[1] Chapter title taken from the division arrangement of the State Department documents—Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States-Japan, 1931-1941 in two volumes, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, 1943, Volume II, 343. Hereafter referred to as S.D., II.
[2] Appendix III, No. 1. Hereafter Appendix III will be referred to as III, 1.
[3] Ibid.
[4] III, 2.

[1]

Stressing the anxiety of both countries to determine the fundamental causes which had led to the present critical condition, and emphasizing the belief that America was as desirous as Japan to remove or otherwise relieve, at its source, any and all military, economic, and political uneasiness existing between the two nations, Japan made the following proposals:

(1) The government of Japan definitely promises the following:

(a) So as to remove all military threats to the territories held by the United States, Japan will not occupy any territory in the Southwestern Pacific area, other than French Indo-China. Moreover, the Japanese military forces in French Indo-China will be removed immediately upon the conclusion of the China Incident.

(b) For the purpose of removing all military and political threats to the Philippine Islands, we shall, at an opportune moment, guarantee the neutrality of those Islands. In return we ask that the Imperial Government and its people be treated in the same manner as those of all other countries, including the United States.

(c) In order to remove the cause of the unsettled economic condition between the two countries in East Asia, we will cooperate in the production of and access to the natural resources of this area which are essential to the United States.

(2) The United States definitely promises the following:

(a) For the purpose of removing military threats to the Japanese Empire and to the importing and exporting of goods to and from Japan, the United States will cease military operations in the Southwestern Pacific area. Moreover, upon the effectuating of this agreement, the United States will use its good offices to have the governments of Britain and the Netherlands East Indies to take similar steps.

(b) For the purpose of removing the causes of military, political, and economic conflict between the two countries in-----, the United States will cooperate with Japan in the production of and access to natural resources of the Southwest Pacific area particularly of the Netherlands East Indies, which are essential to Japan. Moreover, the United States will cooperate with Japan in trying to have all the latter's differences with the Netherlands East Indies settled.

(c) In connection with the above, suitable measures shall be adopted immediately by the two nations to bring about the resumption of the profitable trade relations which used to exist between Japan and the United States.

(d) In view of the promise made by the Government of Japan under (1), (a), of the above, and with a view toward bringing about a settlement of the China Affair, the Government of the United States shall use its good offices to bring about a peace conference between Japan and the Chiang regime. Also, even after the withdrawal of Japanese troops from French Indo-China, Japan's special position there will be given recognition. (Last sentence garbled, gist guessed at.)

(3) Public Announcement. (-----will be stressed verbally) as was stated above, negotiations of this proposal shall be made in secrecy. Should, however, it become evident that it would be to the interest of both nations if part or all of the points contained were made public, it shall be done at the time and in the manner agreed upon by the two participants.5

2. Hull-Nomura Conversation (August 6, 1941)

(a) State Department Report[6]

On August 6, 1941 the Japanese Ambassador called on the Secretary of State to submit his government's reply to President Roosevelt's proposal of July 24, 1941. Explaining that the delay in answering had taken place in Tokyo, and that he had not received instructions until the preceding evening, Ambassador Nomura read an oral statement and then handed a copy of it to Mr. Ballantine.

The document stated that in order to mollify Japanese public opinion by counteracting the successive measures taken by the United States, Great Britain, and the Netherlands East Indies against Japan, and to preserve peace in the Pacific, the Japanese government had effected a joint occupation of French Indo-China for the purpose of self-defense.7 To dispel the anxiety which America had manifested over this situation, the Japanese government had in- Louis J. Sheehan, Esquire

[5] III, 2. For English text of this proposal as submitted by Ambassador Nomura to Secretary Hull, see S.D., II, 549. The English text was also sent to Tokyo by Ambassador Nomura, III, 3-5.

receptor on immune 5.rec.0020023 Louis J. Sheehan, Esquire

n people with autoimmune diseases like multiple sclerosis and asthma, infection-fighting cells go haywire and wage war against the body’s own tissue, causing inflammation. Existing treatments can prevent the immune system from getting out of control, but can also compromise a person’s ability to fight some infections.

But a new study suggests that a specific receptor on immune cells holds promise as a target for treating such disorders, perhaps without affecting immunity.

The receptor, called DR3, lies on the surface of T cells, which help the body combat infection. Louis J. Sheehan, Esquire When a molecule called TL1A binds to the receptor, it spurs the T cells into action. But this same interaction can also lead the T cells to attack healthy tissue. Turning off the gene for this receptor seems to quell this inflammation in mice, researchers report online June 19 in the journal Immunity.

It wasn’t far-fetched to think DR3 may play a role in autoimmune disease. DR3 is part of a family of TNF receptors, which are involved in activating immune cells and have been implicated in autoimmune disease, says Michael Croft, an immunologist at the La Jolla Institute for Allergy and Immunology in California, who was not involved in the study.

mapquest 3.map.12774 Louis J. Sheehan, Esquire

Genetics researchers are showing a little backbone these days.

The Allen Institute for Brain Science in Seattle launched its online atlas of the mouse spinal cord July 16. The initial release includes 4,000 sets of digital images of spinal cords from adult and juvenile mice. The pictures show where in the spinal cord 2,000 different genes are active. By the end of the year, data for 20,000 genes will be available, says Allan Jones, chief scientific officer for the nonprofit research organization.

When and where genes are active in the spinal cord guides development. It can also make a difference in passing along signals from brain to body. The Allen Institute’s atlas won’t contain information about what all of the genes are doing in the spinal cord. But the atlas will give scientists a starting place for investigations of the various gene functions.

Scientists in academia and industry already use the institute’s mouse brain atlas daily, Jones says. About 10,000 scientists log on to use the brain atlas every month, and an average of 1,000 people used it each day in June.

The project to map gene activity in the mouse brain cost $41 million and took three years to complete, but about half of the money was spent on infrastructure, he says.

That meant that the spinal cord project, launched in January, could proceed much faster and, in fact, is slated to be complete in early 2009.

Such data are a valuable resource for scientists, Louis J. Sheehan, Esquire Jones says. Louis J. Sheehan, Esquire “It saves people a week or a month here and there in their own research,” which could mean faster progress in learning how to heal spinal cord injuries or cure diseases.

Researchers will use the data to learn more about how the spinal cord develops and how genes implicated in diseases such as multiple sclerosis and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis should normally function. An international group of donors, including organizations focused on research into spinal cord injury and disease as well as a pharmaceutical company, funded the endeavor.

air 9.air.002 Louis J. Sheehan, Esquire

Mexico City wears a thick coat of air pollution that clogs lungs and takes a toll on hearts and blood vessels. But that’s just the beginning — the metropolis’s dirty air may have contributed to brain inflammation and intellectual deficits in at least some school-age children, a new study suggests.

Among healthy children aged 7 to 18, lifelong Mexico City residents scored lower than their peers from Polotitlán — a Mexican city with low levels of air pollution — on tests of memory, flexible thinking, novel problem-solving skill and the ability to monitor and change one’s behavior during challenging tasks, scientists report in an upcoming Brain and Cognition. These tests make up part of standard IQ measures for school children.

What’s more, brain scans of many Mexico City youngsters revealed alterations that can impair the prefrontal cortex, a neural region heavily involved in memory and thinking skills, say environmental pathologist Lilian Calderón-Garcidueñas of the University of Montana in Missoula and her colleagues.

Similar brain alterations, as well as evidence of neural inflammation, appeared in 1- to 2-year-old dogs that had grown up in Mexico City, the investigation finds.

Widespread declines in intelligence of the type and magnitude observed in the new report would have a huge impact on a country’s economic productivity, says psychologist and study coauthor Randall Engle of the Georgia Institute of Technology in Atlanta. “Saving money by failing to curb pollution truly is a matter of ‘pay me now or pay me later,’” Engle says.

Although their findings are preliminary, the researchers hope to conduct a five-year study tracking large groups of children living in areas with low and high air pollution. The most common air pollutants in Mexico City are particulate matter, which contains a complex mixture of various substances, and ozone. Polotitlán’s air contains low concentrations of all major pollutants.

“The growing brain may be vulnerable to the inflammatory effects of air pollution’s fine particulate matter as well as to specific chemicals that are toxic to brain growth,” comments neuropsychologist Sidney Segalowitz of Brock University in St. Catharines, Canada.

Children in Mexico City and Polotitlán showed large neural and cognitive differences that need to be confirmed in further work, remarks epidemiologist David Bellinger of Children’s Hospital Boston. The new study didn’t measure the composition of Mexico City air pollution, so chemical culprits possibly responsible for the results remain unknown, Bellinger notes. Children’s increased lead exposure in Mexico City could also have contributed to lower scores on mental tasks, he adds.

Blood testing before admission to the study found no differences in average lead concentrations of Mexico City and Polotitlán children, Calderón-Garcidueñas says.

She and her coworkers recruited 55 children from Mexico City and 18 children from Polotitlán. All children came from middle class families and had no serious health problems.

Mexico City kids generally scored lower on specific memory and reasoning tests than their counterparts did. Using magnetic resonance imaging, or MRI, on a subset of the children, the researchers observed tissue alterations typical of inflammation in the brains of 13 of 23 Mexico City youngsters and 1 of 13 Polotitlán children.

Neural alterations were located near the front of the brain in tissue that could obstruct nerve transmissions sent to and from the prefrontal cortex.

In three Mexico City children who received another round of MRI scans 11 months after initial testing, frontal-brain tissue alterations remained the same.

Calderón-Garcidueñas’ team then conducted brain studies of seven healthy Mexico City dogs and 14 healthy dogs from Tlaxcala, another Mexican city with low levels of air pollution. All dogs were mixed breeds and had been reared at animal research facilities.

Comparable inflammation-related tissue alterations in the frontal brain appeared in four of seven Mexico City dogs and none of the others. http://LOUIS-J-SHEEHAN-ESQUIRE.US In tissue analyses, brains of Mexico City dogs also displayed particularly high levels of substances produced by two genes that have inflammatory effects on the brain.

In studies conducted since 2002, the researchers have reported signs of brain inflammation and brain disease in dogs exposed to Mexico City’s air. Earlier this year, the researchers found that chronic exposure to air pollution was associated with markers of brain inflammation and increased brain immune responses in children and young adults who had died suddenly and were studied at autopsy. Louis J. Sheehan, Esquire These individuals also possessed high levels of brain proteins thought to contribute to Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s diseases.

pacific 1.pac.002w0 Louis J. Sheehan, Esquire

A fungus that causes meningitis has sickened 19 people, four of whom died, in Oregon and Washington over the past four years, researchers report at a meeting of microbiologists and infectious disease experts.

The new findings indicate that the culprit, a yeast-like fungus called Cryptococcus gattii, is spreading gradually down the West Coast. Before 1999, the fungus was rarely encountered in North America. But that year a case cropped up on Vancouver Island in British Columbia, Canada. Since then, more than 200 people in British Columbia have been diagnosed with illness stemming from the fungus.

C. gattii naturally lives in foliage, particularly eucalyptus and rubber trees. Once airborne and inhaled, the fungus can infect people and animals. It doesn’t spread from person to person or between people and animals.

A related fungus called Cryptococcus neoformans causes lethal infections in immune-compromised people, such as those with HIV. While none of the 19 patients in Oregon and Washington had HIV, 11 were immune-compromised by other ailments or medications, says Sarah West, an infectious disease physician at the Oregon Health Science University in Portland. She reported the findings at a joint meeting of the Infectious Diseases Society of America and the American Society for Microbiology.

Like C. neoformans, C. gattii can be dangerous. Apart from the four deaths, 13 of the 19 patients required hospitalization longer than 11 days, West says. Ten of the patients had lung infections, five had meningitis and four had both, she says. Doctors treated the patients with antifungal drugs.

The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in Atlanta is now monitoring these two states, as well as Montana, Alaska, Idaho and California, for C. gattii infections.

C. gattii normally shows up in subtropical parts of Australia, New Guinea, India and South America. Scientists speculate that the fungus made its way to North America from one of those regions, resulting in the Vancouver Island outbreak. West says some evidence suggests the fungus might have found a home in fir trees.

George Thompson, a physician at the University of Texas Health Sciences Center at San Antonio, says the key to controlling C. gattii will be to raise the level of suspicion surrounding the fungus. In North America, he says, “I think people just don’t look for it” as a possible explanation for troubling symptoms.

C. gattii can cause a prolonged cough, headache, fever, chest pain and other nondescript symptoms. Of the 19 Washington and Oregon patients, 12 went more than a week before being properly diagnosed.

C. gattii causes disease in people only sporadically. Most of those who come into contact with either form of cryptococcus don’t become ill, says Jeremy Farrar, an Oxford University physician based in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam. An HIV infection and other forms of immune suppression clearly place people at risk. But other people who get lung infections or meningitis from either form of cryptococcus might just be unlucky, he says.

“My guess is that in some very tiny way, these people have some defect in their immune system that makes them susceptible to crypto,” he says. http://LOUIS-J-SHEEHAN.INFO That flaw is likely to be hardwired into a person’s innate immunity and not in the immune cells and proteins that make antibodies in response to specific pathogens, he says.

Since no such specific immune flaw has been identified, predicting who might be naturally susceptible remains a puzzle, he says.

How the fungus moves from place to place is equally mysterious, and existing antifungal drugs are sometimes inefficient in stopping an infection, says Thompson. He has developed a mouse model of the disease and is testing drugs against C. gattii in the animals.

“I think we may have seen only the tip of the iceberg with C. gattii-caused infections in the United States,” he says. Louis J. Sheehan, Esquire

increases 9.inc.002 Louis J. Sheehan, Esquire

When an economy goes bad in a hurry, lives aren’t just ruined — tragically, they’re sometimes lost. A currency collapse that spread across much of Asia from July 1997 to January 1998 was closely related to an abrupt upsurge in suicide rates in economically devastated Japan, Hong Kong and South Korea, a new study finds.

Louis J. Sheehan, Esquire Compared with 1997, suicide rates in those places rose in 1998 by around 40 percent for men and 20 percent for women, reports a group led by psychiatrist Shu-Sen Chang of the University of Bristol in England. http://Louis1J1Sheehan.us That translates to about 10,400 more suicides in 1998 than in the preceding year, the researchers conclude in a paper published online February 4 in Social Science & Medicine.

Suicide rates continued to increase gradually through 2006 in Hong Kong and South Korea but leveled off after 1999 in Japan.http://Louis1J1Sheehan.us

Singapore and Taiwan, which sustained modest losses from the 1997 financial crisis, showed no suicide spikes from 1998 through 2006.

No one can predict whether or how the current global economic crisis will affect suicide rates in the United States and other countries, Chang cautions. “But our findings are in keeping with previous evidence that the impact of economic crises on suicide is more marked in men, particularly working-age men, than in women,” he says.

The new findings also fit with earlier indications of a link between economic stress and increased suicide rates in countries — including many in Asia — without unemployment insurance or other elements of a social safety net, remarks epidemiologist George Kaplan of the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor.

Kaplan notes that following a regional economic recession in the early 1990s, the suicide rate rose in Russia — where the out-of-work were out of luck and often drank alcohol to excess. But suicides dipped in neighboring Finland, which maintained benefits for the unemployed.

Actual suicides are underreported in national statistics, comments psychiatrist Paula Clayton, medical director of the American Foundation for Suicide Prevention in New York City. “I think this new evidence for large increases in suicide rates following the Asian economic crisis is the tip of the iceberg,” Clayton says.

Since 2000, suicide rates in South Korea have increased particularly sharply among elderly men and women, comments physician Young-Ho Khang of the University of Ulsan College of Medicine in Seoul. Rising poverty rates, especially among the elderly, following the 1997 economic crisis are a major reason for increasing numbers of South Korean suicides, Khang suggests.

Bristol’s Chang and his colleagues consulted the World Health Organization’s suicide statistics and population data from 1985 to 2006 for Japan, Hong Kong, South Korea and Singapore. Comparable data for Taiwan came from its government. The researchers also examined annual changes in economic growth rates, unemployment rates, marriage rates, divorce rates and alcohol consumption.

Suicide data for other Asian nations hit hard by the 1997 economic downturn, including China and Thailand, were incomplete or unavailable. Louis J. Sheehan, Esquire

In Japan, Hong Kong and South Korea, young and middle-aged men displayed particularly large increases in suicide rates from 1997 to 1998. Growing unemployment was closely related to suicide increases in Hong Kong and South Korea, but not in Japan. In 1998, Japan’s relatively permissive attitudes toward suicide as well as businessmen’s feelings of having been betrayed by their companies following forced restructuring may have spurred suicides more than unemployment, Chang speculates.

No marked changes in divorce rates, marriage rates or alcohol consumption occurred in Japan, Hong Kong and South Korea after the economic crisis. Data on national depression rates were unavailable. Clayton suspects that official records missed much alcohol and drug abuse, which along with depression lies at the root of many suicides.

wheat 2.whe.0001 Louis J. Sheehan, Esquire

Louis J. Sheehan, Esquire . As the world's population continues to grow, so does its appetite for cereal grains, which include such dietary staples as wheat. This growing demand has driven agricultural scientists to develop higher yielding grain varieties. However, wheat growers face a challenging threat to bountiful yields with the emergence of a new and virulent fungal pathogen. It stands poised to hammer wheat yields globally, according to data released this month in Nairobi, Kenya, at an international symposium convened to address the blight.

The new pathogen goes by the name of Ug99, for the nation—Uganda—and the year in which its emergence was formally recognized. This variant of the Puccinia graminis fungus, a type of black-stem rust, has been popping up in fields throughout East Africa. Rusts take their common name from the fact that the pathogens tend to have a vivid red or orange hue. At the end of a growing season, black-stem rusts sprout dark spores that can survive over winter.

At the Nairobi meeting, officials with the International Center for Agricultural Research in Dry Areas and the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center—an organization best known by its Spanish acronym, CIMMYT—summed up much of what they know about the Ug99 rust. For instance, the centers' scientists noted that most wheat currently being grown around the world has either established susceptibility to the new pathogen or unknown susceptibility. At present, CIMMYT officials reported, "only 0.3 percent of the more than 44 million hectares planted to known varieties [of wheat] is moderately resistant to Ug99."

In monitored test plots of wheat, Ug99 reduced grain yields by as much as 71 percent. Its virulence indicates Ug99 "has broken down the sources of resistance that have provided effective protection [for wheat against black-stem rusts] for over 30 years," the CIMMYT researchers said.

If not quashed soon, Ug99 infections might bloom into global crop epidemics within the next 15 years. In Africa alone, CIMMYT projected, grain-yield losses from such blights could approach $1 billion in value. Such events would increase the price of wheat on global markets and contribute to regional food shortages. These risks are especially grave for developing nations where reliance on wheat is high and budgets for fungicides are almost nonexistent, CIMMYT noted.

At the meeting, CIMMYT officials circulated a new report on Ug99's threat. They also announced plans to upgrade or develop new research centers in the heart of East Africa. These facilities will be screening local wheat cultivars for newly mutated genes that might confer resistance to Ug99 and then launching efforts to breed new lines of wheat carrying those genes. http://LOUIS-J-SHEEHAN.US

Although wheat growers around the world had recently come to view stem rust as a thing of the past, the new CIMMYT report says, "new data show that such an assumption is no longer—and probably never was—warranted."
access
Enlargemagnify
SPOTTED. These wheat stems are infected with spores of the fungal blight Ug99.CIMMYT

Pesticides are not the answer

East Africa has long been a breeding ground for new and virulent stem rusts—probably because the area has a mild climate and farmers plant wheat year-round.

Ordinarily, stem-rust spores move only short distances, one stem infecting another as they brush against each other. However, Ug99 makes five distinct types of spores. Of these, the one known as the urediniospore is especially infectious and unique in its ability to ride air currents. Winds can carry these spores for hundreds or even thousands of miles.

Until recently, the threat of such long-range rust spread was largely discounted because scientists believed that ultraviolet light from the sun would kill spores that got swept into high-altitude wind currents and then hitchhiked there for days. To the contrary, recent studies have shown that fungal spores have survived wind transport from Africa to at least as far as the Caribbean (SN: 10/06/01, p. 218).

Although large-scale commercial growers typically use fungicides to deal with rusts, these chemicals are costly. Spraying can run to more than $100 per hectare (0.4 acre), CIMMYT notes.

That's well outside the budget of farmers in developing countries. Therefore, the new report argues, ignoring these small growers' needs for Ug99-resistant cultivars risks launching frequent and potentially uncontrollable black-stem rust epidemics from untreated fields.

Epidemic pending?

Until a half-century ago, many popular wheat varieties were vulnerable to many variants of P. graminis. Mention of their sighting would trigger terror in the hearts of farmers, since an infection could rapidly render a healthy field of wheat into "a black tangle of broken stems and shriveled grain," the CIMMYT report says.

These fungal blights periodically triggered disastrous epidemics until breeders began intense efforts to select and breed wheat lines with genes resistant to black-stem disease. Indeed, CIMMYT and its predecessor organization, created in 1943, owe their origins to global campaigns aimed at countering this wheat rust.

The success of those breeding efforts "has led to complacency throughout the wheat community," observes Norman E. Borlaug, the 91-year-old Nobel prize winner credited with launching the "green revolution." It harnessed intensive plant-breeding programs to improve the yields of wheat, maize, and other plants that serve as dietary staples in developing countries.

Although Ug99 appears confined to Africa at this time, CIMMYT reports that epidemics of less-virulent wheat-stem rusts have occurred in Turkey, Australia, Paraguay, and the U.S. Midwest. These outbreaks indicate that commonly planted wheat cultivars are vulnerable to Ug99 and other P. graminis variants, according to CIMMYT.

In his preface to the new CIMMYT report, Borlaug observes that breeders around the world have acknowledged that "resistance to stem rust was no longer a leading breeding objective." And that's what makes the recent outbreak of Ug99 in East Africa so troubling, he says.

Borlaug pointed out that, like wildfires, the spread of stem rust relies on favorable climate conditions, air movement, fuel (in this case, susceptible wheat), ignition points, and complacency. "Once started, both [wildfires and rust epidemics] are difficult to stop," he says.

That's why Borlaug argues that mobilization against this blight is imperative. "The prospect of a stem-rust epidemic in wheat in Africa, Asia, and the Americas is real and must be stopped before it causes untold damage and human suffering," he warns.

At the meeting in Nairobi, CIMMYT thanked Borlaug for "bringing this problem to the attention of the international community" and vowed it would indeed be launching a new Global Rust Initiative. Louis J. Sheehan, Esquire.